The General Information
The term "Mamluk" was a general designation for enslaved Muslims brought from various regions—including Eastern Europe, Turkey, Egypt, and elsewhere—though the specific label "Mamluk" was primarily used in Egypt.
The Mamluk state
As it came to be known in Egypt and the Levant during the seventh century AH (thirteenth century CE), did not exist in that form prior to that period.
The distinction between the Abbasid army and the Mamluk army is as follows: the former belonged to a multi-ethnic state, whereas the latter was a professional military force rooted in the specific class of Mamluk warriors.
Throughout its long history—spanning several centuries—
The Islamic army served as the formidable bulwark of the Islamic state. Successive political powers that governed the state sought to preserve its integrity and confront looming threats by building a robust military capable of defending the realm, repelling aggression, and pursuing expansionist ambitions. As a political entity, the state aimed to extend its borders; as a religious entity, it held *jihad*—and the propagation of Islam into non-Muslim lands—as a fundamental pillar of its existence.
The Islamic army engaged in numerous military battles under various general designations found across historical sources—such as "the Army of the Muslims," "the Army of Islam," or "the Arab Army."
However,
In certain instances, the Islamic army was referred to by specific names. These designations were not necessarily linked to the scale of a battle, its historical significance, or its decisive outcome; rather, they were tied to exceptional circumstances the army encountered. Some of these names relate to the nature of a battle and the harsh conditions surrounding it—for example, "the Army of *al-Khabt*" (the Army of Foraging/Desperate Sustenance) and "the Army of *al-‘Usrah*" (the Army of Hardship).
Others relate to the army’s strength and remarkable military prowess—such as "the Army of *al-Zahf*" (the Advancing Army).
Or they may relate to the battle’s commanders and leaders, or to the status of those participating in it—such as the "Army of Princes" (*Jaysh al-Umara’*) or the "Army of the ‘Abadilah" (*Jaysh al-‘Abadilah*).
Alternatively,
They may pertain to circumstances involving the immense preparations and rigorous organization of the army, as seen in the "Army of Peacocks" (*Jaysh al-Tawawis*)
Or, they may signify a catastrophic military disaster that befell the army, as was the case with the "Army of Annihilation" (*Jaysh al-Fana’*).
While some designations for Islamic armies were derived from the names of the battles in which they fought, others had no such connection. Instead, they were shaped by specific events, occurrences, and military experiences unique to each individual army. Behind every name lies a story—a narrative of an army that stood firm, struggled, persevered, fought, and confronted its enemies with unwavering strength and resolve. These names carried profound significance, reflecting the distinct characteristics, specialized capabilities, military aptitude, and fighting spirit of each force. They also alluded to the strategic plans and tactical approaches employed for assigned combat missions—and, at times, even captured the military setbacks encountered during certain engagements.
The Types of Combat Forces in the Islamic Army—Including Mamluks—During the Early Abbasid Period
(Approximately 132–232 AH / 750–847 AD)
1- The Infantry
They formed the backbone of the army, fighting with swords, spears, shields, and bows. They were tasked with guarding positions and engaging in direct combat.
2- The Cavalry
It's representing one of the most significant and powerful military units, they relied on horses for speed and maneuverability. They were divided into heavy (armored) cavalry and light cavalry.
3- The Archers
It equipped with bows and arrows, they could serve either on foot or on horseback (mounted archers). Their primary role was to weaken the enemy’s ranks before direct engagement.
4- The Archers and Slingers
These units employed various projectile weapons, engaging the enemy from long distances.
5- The Siege and Military Engineering Corps
it tasked with constructing trebuchets, wooden siege engines (battering rams/towers), and siege towers, this unit was responsible for breaching fortresses and fortified cities.
6- The Special Guard
It responsible for protecting the Caliph and high-ranking commanders; reliance on this unit increased significantly during the Abbasid era.
7- The Turkic Soldiers
Their presence became particularly prominent during the reign of Caliph al-Mu'tasim. As professional warriors, they formed a crucial core within the later Abbasid army
The Mamluk Army
(The specifically during the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt and the Levant)
Its forces consisted primarily of:
Mamluk cavalry
Infantry
Archers
Siege units
Naval forces (when needed)
An important question: Is there a difference between the Abbasid army and the Mamluk army?
The Abbasid Army
A- The composition of the army:
It was composed of Arabs, Persians, Turks, and other subjects of the state.
The Mamluk Army
It relied primarily on Mamluks—warrior-slaves who were brought in at a young age and trained for military service.
The Infantry and cavalry
The characterized by great ethnic diversity.
The armored Mamluk cavalry
They served as the primary striking force.
It began with the purchase of Mamluks, who were raised in special camps, subsequently manumitted, and then incorporated into the army; this was supplemented by volunteers from various provinces.
The Leadership
The Caliph and army commanders appointed by the state — The Sultan and Mamluk commanders (emirs) who belonged to the same military class.
The Military Organization
A multi-ethnic, heterogeneous army — A highly disciplined, professional army based on intensive military training.
The Key Achievements
Territorial conquests, the consolidation of the Abbasid state, and the defense of its frontiers — The defeat of the Mongols at Ain Jalut and the repelling of the Crusades.
The Abbasid army was a diverse force
encompassing various peoples and ethnicities under the authority of the Caliphate.
The Mamluk army was a professional force that relied primarily on highly trained Mamluk cavalry; it was, therefore, considered one of the most powerful armies in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages.
The Abbasid Army During the Era of the Barmakids
The two new divisions were formed:
The Abbasid Division (*al-Abbasiyya*)
it organized by al-Fadl ibn Yahya al-Barmaki, this force was recruited from among the Persians in Khurasan and numbered 500,000 soldiers.
The Kartabiyya
A faction originating from the Abbasid-aligned groups in Khurasan; they were brought to Baghdad, where they acquired this name.
The presence of a Turkic element
Alongside the existing Arab and Persian components—began to emerge within the Abbasid army as early as the reign of al-Mansur, though their numbers were initially small. By the time of al-Rashid, some Turks had attained the rank of regimental commander (*amir al-alwiya*) within the army, while others were appointed to govern the frontier zones (*al-thughur*). Among them was Abu Salim Faraj al-Khadim, who is considered the first Turkic commander.
The Caliph al-Mu'tasim
During the caliphate of al-Ma'mun, al-Mu'tasim began purchasing Turks in Samarkand until he had amassed a force of approximately three thousand Turkish soldiers, intending to employ them in his campaigns against the Byzantines.
The Methods of Army Mobilization
In the Islamic system, "mobilization" entails:
1. The Organizing the armies.
2. Arranging the battalions—both before and after a battle.
3. Concentrating all material and moral resources to ensure victory in battle.
During the early Abbasid era,
The significant attention was devoted to the organization of armies, with authorities bearing the responsibility for declaring war or establishing peace. During the period when al-Ma'mun was the designated heir, al-Rashid convened the judges and high-ranking state officials to bear witness to all matters concerning the army.
The forces were divided into two categories
The regular forces: These were soldiers enrolled in the official military registry (*diwan*) and paid salaries from the state treasury (*bayt al-mal*).
The volunteer forces: These were individuals who volunteered during wartime and served to guard the frontier regions (*thughur*). They were utilized in two specific scenarios:
First scenario
It's surrounding the enemy’s flanks, without the need to commit the regular troops.
Second scenario
it's launching raids against the enemy before the full outbreak of war, and pursuing them as they retreated. These volunteer units were a highly effective element in warfare; driven by their zeal and desire for divine reward, they would eagerly engage in combat—to the extent that some of them...
The Cavalry (predominantly Arab in origin)
The cavalry constituted the primary branch of the Arab military. They were armed with swords, lances, and spears; they wore helmets on their heads, along with chainmail and body armor. Attached to their saddles, near their feet, they carried axes and maces—weapons used to crush iron helmets.
As the Abbasids came to rely increasingly on the Turks, the importance of the cavalry grew, given that the Turks were, for the most part, horsemen.
Why were they so skilled in horsemanship?
They were not occupied with crafts, trade, medicine, agriculture, engineering, or cultivation; their only concerns were raiding, hunting, and riding horses. The Turk was, in effect, the groom, the farrier, and the cavalier—all in one. He was the one who tended to the horse, trained it, and broke it in.
The Duties of the Cavalry
The Protecting the state and defending its borders
The cavalry was considered one of the most vital components of the Abbasid army, distinguished by their mobility and combat prowess while mounted.
Participating in wars and battles against adversaries.
Pursuing insurgents and suppressing internal rebellions.
The conducting reconnaissance missions and gathering intelligence on enemy movements.
The protecting caravans and critical routes.
It's assessing enemy strength and identifying vulnerabilities; for this reason, they did not wear heavy armor or carry shields that might hinder their movement, and they rode swift horses. During the campaign at Amorium, the Abbasid army relied on the cavalry to scout routes and locate enemy positions.
*Al-Bu‘uth* (Expeditionary Forces)
These are troops conscripted by the Caliph’s authority to participate in warfare; they do not constitute a standing, professional army.
*Maghafir* (Chainmail Headgear)
The plural of *maghfar*, this refers to a type of helmet woven from *zard* (chainmail)—interlocking metal rings used to reinforce armor. Armor (*dir‘*) itself is a garment made of these interlocking iron rings, worn over the upper body; it features short sleeves reaching the mid-arm and may sometimes include iron arm guards.
*Dabbus* (Mace)
An iron club with a small, weighted head, used to crush metal helmets. Cavalrymen would carry these on their saddles, tucked near their legs. It was customary for cavalrymen to carry equipment on their expeditions that was lightweight yet highly functional.
*Mutaradah* (Pursuit)
The act of pursuing a defeated enemy army, carried out by the attacking cavalry or by a reserve cavalry unit—the latter being known as *madad* (reinforcements).
The Protecting the Army During a March
A detachment of cavalry would be assigned to guard routes and key positions, preventing the army from being caught off guard by the enemy. At night, they would surround the encampment.
The Cavalry Squadrons
The mounted on horseback, these squadrons would rotate, patrolling around the encampment day and night, remaining prepared to repel the enemy should an attack occur.
The Protecting Convoys Carrying Supplies and Equipment
A detachment of cavalry is assigned to this task, a role known as *badhraqa* or *jafara* (escort/guard duty).
The Protecting the Army During Combat
A number of cavalrymen are tasked with securing grazing lands and water sources—denying them to the enemy while seizing control for their own use. Additionally, units are positioned along the flanks (the right and left wings) of the army to serve as a protective screen, preventing the enemy from breaking through the ranks, halting any hostile advance, and creating an opportunity for the rest of the army to finish off the enemy.
The Infantry (Foot Soldiers)
These troops are armed with swords, pikes, spears, javelins, and bows and arrows. Like the cavalry, they wear armor and protect their heads with helmets.
The infantry constitutes the largest portion of the army
They are the ones who engage in direct, close-quarters combat with the enemy forces.
The Al - Raht
It' refers to a group of five to ten soldiers.
The Entourage
It refers to ten soldiers or fewer.
The Group
Also called the Convoy or the Detachment, its number varies between thirty and forty.
The Company
Its number is between forty and fifty.
The Battalion
Its number is between one hundred and one thousand.
The Army
It's consisting of four thousand soldiers, and the same applies to the Legion.
The Regiment
It composed of one thousand to four thousand soldiers, including both cavalry and infantry.
The Al - Khamees
It's consisting of four thousand to twelve thousand, it is called the Thursday because it is composed of five divisions: the vanguard, the right flank, the left flank, and the center.
The Military (Al-‘Askar)
This term refers to the personnel as a whole.
The Detachment (Al-Sariyya)
It's consisting of between three hundred and five hundred soldiers, these units would set out during the day; they were also known as *al-sawarib*.
The Spies
The espionage played a crucial role in warfare among Muslims. Through the skill of his spies, Abu Muslim al-Khurasani was able to sow defeat among the Umayyad commanders and launch successful offensives against them. Similarly, al-Ma’mun’s commander, Tahir ibn al-Husayn, managed to incite discord within the ranks of al-Amin’s forces. Consequently, commanders began to place an even greater emphasis on maintaining secrecy.
The Tactical Formations
The Tactical formations during the Abbasid era evolved in response to the growth of the army and the development of its organizational structures, tailored to the nature of its combat engagements.
There were five primary types of Abbasid tactical formations
The "Hit-and-Run" (Karr wa-Farr) Tactic
This was a method employed by the Arabs since earlier times. Fighters would launch an assault on the enemy; if the enemy held their ground and proved superior, the fighters would withdraw to regroup and address any weaknesses before launching another attack.
The Archery and Ranged Combat
This category included troops who fought with swords, thrust with spears, or threw javelins.
The "Five-Fold" (Khamis) Formation
This system involved dividing the army into five distinct sections:
The Right Flank (Maymana) and The Left Flank (Maysara)
These positions were occupied by seasoned veterans experienced in warfare.
The Vanguard (Muqaddima)
Also known as the "advance guard" (tala'i'), this section consisted of cavalrymen who were highly skilled in archery and adept at swift, agile maneuvering.
The Center (Qalb)
It's serving as the hub for the other sections, the center was composed of the most steadfast and resilient troops. It housed the commander-in-chief and his entourage. The commander would move between different positions to oversee and organize the ranks.
The Formation or Advance System
This is the system known to the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) Sometimes, the combatants would organize themselves into two or three rows, with those carrying spears positioned at the front.
During the reign of al-Mu'tasim bi-llah (218–227 AH), Mamluks—Specifically Turks—were brought in to serve as a reliable and exceptionally skilled military force. Historians have noted that these soldiers were distinguished by:
The courage,
military discipline, and direct loyalty to the Caliph.
Consequently,
They became the backbone of the Abbasid army in numerous campaigns.
The Accounts of the Mamluks during the Early Abbasid Period:
1- The scholars and historians during the reign of Caliph al-Mu'tasim bi-llah described them as follows
In terms of strengths
The Militarily, they were formidable and disciplined cavalrymen. Al-Mu'tasim relied upon them to build a powerful army, utilizing them in successful campaigns—most notably the conquest of Amorium.
In terms of drawbacks
The growth of their influence led to tensions with the general populace, and subsequently, to the interference of the military in the affairs of the state and the Caliphate.
2- Al-Mas'udi
The Turks would harass the common people in the "City of Peace" (Baghdad) by galloping their horses through the marketplaces, endangering the weak and the children. This account indicates that Al-Mas'udi recognized them as a significant military force.
3- An account reported by historians from the people of Baghdad
As al-Mu‘tasim increased the number of Turks [in his service], it is reported that an elder from Baghdad said to him: "O Abu Ishaq... you have brought these uncouth foreigners—your Turkish retainers—and settled them among us. You have orphaned our children, widowed our women, and killed our men." This account reflects the attitude of a segment of Baghdad’s population who were distressed by the conduct of certain Turkish soldiers; it was among the factors that led to the founding of Samarra and the relocation of the capital there.
4- Ibn al-Athir (d. 630 AH)
In his discussion of the reign of al-Mu‘tasim, he presents much the same information regarding the growing number of Turks and al-Mu‘tasim’s move to Samarra in response to complaints about them. He further notes that these soldiers became the foundation of the Abbasid Caliphate’s military power.
5- Al-Tabari
"I fear that these *harbiyya* [the local troops/inhabitants of Baghdad] might raise a cry and kill my retainers. I wish to position myself above them, so that if I sense any treachery from them, I can descend upon them—by land or by water—and utterly destroy them."
