The Beginning of Islamic Rule
From its Inception to the Umayyad Caliphate (640–661 AD)
The expansion of the Muslims from the Arabian Peninsula into the Levant and Iraq marks an enduring chapter in their glorious history. The achievements they realized within just a few years far exceeded the expectations of their leaders and the Caliphs.
Amr ibn al-Aas, having established his presence in Palestine,
He recognized an urgent need to conquer Egypt. His objective was to secure the Levant against the Byzantine threat looming from Egyptian territory. He sought permission from Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab to undertake the conquest; after some hesitation, the Caliph granted his consent.
Amr set out for Egypt at the head of a force of four thousand men
He began his campaign by capturing al-Arish, al-Farama, and Bilbeis, inflicting successive defeats upon the Byzantines, who subsequently retreated to the Fortress of Babylon. Following a siege that lasted several months, the Muslims entered Egypt, crossed the Nile to the west, and laid siege to Alexandria—eventually securing its surrender through a peace agreement in 21 AH (641 AD).
Amr continued his conquests in the south.
However, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine took advantage of Amr ibn al-Aas’s preoccupation with these southern campaigns to dispatch a naval expedition to Alexandria. The force managed to enter the city, which they then plundered, killing a number of its inhabitants.
Amr returned, re-entered Alexandria,
And—with the assistance of the local Coptic population—defeated the Byzantines and killed their commander.
He subsequently implemented several reforms,
It's abolishing the injustices and heavy levies that the Byzantines had imposed upon the people.
He treated the population well and restored their prelate, Benjamin, to his see—actions that earned him their affection, leading them to pledge their obedience and loyalty to him.
During his governorship, Amr ibn al-Aas founded the city of Fustat,
which would serve as the seat for the governors of Egypt who followed him.
During the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan, in 23 AH (643 AD), his foster brother, Abdullah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi al-Sarh, was appointed governor of Egypt. He proceeded to launch military campaigns into North Africa.
Under the governorship of Abdullah ibn Abi al-Sarh, the Islamic armies reached Dongola in Sudan in 31 AH (651 AD), where he concluded a peace treaty with the local inhabitants that included various economic provisions.
He was also the first to conceive the idea of establishing an Arab fleet—in collaboration with Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of the Levant— with the objective of eliminating Byzantine influence along the eastern and southern coasts of the Mediterranean.
The Umayyad Period
(661–750 AD)
From the very beginning of their rule, the Umayyads recognized the importance of Egypt. Together with the Levant, it served as a vital base for confronting the Byzantines—who had exploited the internal conflict between Ali and Muawiyah to launch intermittent raids along the Levantine and Egyptian coasts.
Furthermore,
From the time Muawiyah assumed the Caliphate, Egypt served as the primary staging ground for Islamic armies advancing toward Africa and, subsequently, Al-Andalus. However, Egypt’s allegiance to the Umayyads was not always steadfast; following the death of Yazid in 64 AH (683 AD), the Egyptians sided with Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr against Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. Eventually, they submitted to Abd al-Malik’s authority after he sought to win them over and secure their loyalty—a process facilitated when he appointed his brother, Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan, as governor. Nevertheless, supporters of Ali continued to seize opportunities to rebel against Umayyad rule. This is best illustrated by the fact that when Marwan ibn Muhammad sought refuge in Egypt, he found no one among its people to stand by him—a state of affairs that persisted until his death in 132 AH (750 AD).
The Abbasid Era
750–868 AD
During the Abbasid period, the administrative center (capital) of Egypt shifted to a city known as "Al-Askar" (The Encampment). This city was established to serve as a base for the army and the administration. When the Abbasids assumed power following the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 AD, they relocated the seat of government in Egypt from Fustat to a new city they built to its north, named "Al-Askar." It was so named because it was designated for the quarters of soldiers, commanders, and the Abbasid administrative apparatus—a development initiated by al-Fadl ibn Salih ibn Ali al-Abbasid.
The Abbasid Caliphs entrusted the governorship of this region to capable commanders from among their ranks, such as Ibrahim ibn Salih and Humayd ibn Qahtaba.
Nevertheless,
Abbasid rule did not remain as stable as might have been expected; the period witnessed numerous rebellions, including one led by:
Dihya ibn Mus'ab ibn al-Asbagh ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan.
A descendant of the Umayyad dynasty, he launched an uprising in Upper Egypt in 165 AH (781 AD) against the Abbasid governor, Ibrahim ibn Salih. He withheld tax revenues and his influence grew to such an extent that he proclaimed himself Caliph. Many prominent figures in Egypt pledged their allegiance to him and corresponded with him, inviting him to enter Fustat.
The Egyptians stood by the Alawids on many occasions, most notably during the revolt led by Muhammad ibn Abd Allah—known as "al-Nafs al-Zakiyya" (the Pure Soul). Egypt served as a safe haven for some who migrated there, such as Ishaq ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq, who sought refuge in the country alongside his wife, Nafisa bint al-Hasan ibn Zayd ibn al-Hasan ibn Ali. At the same time, Egypt functioned as a secure transit route for those fleeing toward the Maghreb and Andalusia—including both Umayyads (such as Abd al-Rahman al-Dakhil) and Alawids (such as Idris ibn Abd Allah)—who were eventually able to establish states in Andalusia and the Maghreb that stood in opposition to the Abbasid Caliphate.
Furthermore,
During the period when Egypt was under the suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliphate, influential leaders with separatist aspirations emerged. Among them was Abd al-Aziz ibn al-Jarur, who established control over Upper Egypt, while al-Sari ibn al-Hakam took command of Lower Egypt. The latter—a cunning leader of Khurasani origin—was particularly ruthless toward the people of Egypt. It is recounted that when some of his own followers, led by his own brother, rebelled against him during a battle, he defeated them, loaded them all onto a boat, and ordered that they be drowned in the Nile.
During this same period,
The tribes of Lakhm and Judham arrived in Egypt. Their chieftains seized control of Alexandria and the western regions, leading to widespread unrest that threatened the political and social stability of the country. This situation persisted until the Caliph al-Ma'mun himself arrived at the head of a large military expedition, which enabled him to restore order and stability. From the middle of the third century AH (ninth century AD) onward, Egypt began to move toward independence, even while nominally remaining under the authority of the Abbasid state.
Following the appointment of Ahmad ibn Tulun as governor of Egypt in 256 AH/869 AD—
The succeeding the previous governor, a man of Turkic origin named Bakbak—and as a result of the wars he waged against the Byzantines, he succeeded in annexing the Levant (Bilad al-Sham) to Egypt, a move subsequently ratified by the Caliph. Ibn Tulun was thus able to establish a dynasty that remained in power until the end of the third century AH. During this period, Egypt experienced notable prosperity; Ahmad ibn Tulun is credited with founding the city of al-Qata'i', which served as his capital.
He also fostered the development of industry, commerce, and agriculture, He is leading to an improvement in the living conditions of people across all social strata. Furthermore, the *dhimmis* (non-Muslim subjects) were treated with dignity; Muslims would even observe the religious holidays of the Christian community, much as they celebrated Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The Tulunids were also known for their patronage of the sciences and literature; their mosque—which still stands today—functioned as an educational institution that produced prominent scholars, including men of letters, poets, and jurists.
Regarding the military sphere,
The historical studies indicate that Ahmad ibn Tulun placed great emphasis on his army, which grew to number over one hundred thousand troops—comprising Arabs, Sudanese, and Turks.
They were equipped with the most modern weaponry, and at his disposal was a massive fleet—for which he had established a shipyard in the Al-Rawda district. Among the commanders who rose to prominence in the Tulunid court was Tughj ibn Juff, known as Abu al-Ikhshid; he had entered their service as early as the time of Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad, and he secured for them brilliant victories over the Byzantine armies, which paved the way for his own eventual rule over Egypt.
The Fatimid Era
868–905 AD
After several attempts, the Fatimids succeeded in advancing into Egypt. Under the reign of Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah, an army was dispatched—led by Jawhar al-Siqilli—in the year 358 AH / 968 AD.
Immediately upon his entry into Egypt, Jawhar al-Siqilli ordered the establishment of the city of Cairo and the Al-Azhar Mosque.
Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah al-Fatimi was the fourth Fatimid Caliph and the first to rule from Egypt, following the relocation of the Fatimid state there.
He worked to consolidate Fatimid rule and propagate the Isma'ili-Fatimid doctrine within Egypt, while prohibiting the wearing of black—the symbolic color of the Abbasids.
To further strengthen his influence, he reserved key administrative positions for followers of the Shi'a faith; this, in turn, encouraged many Egyptians to adopt this doctrine.
Ultimately,
During their period of rule, the Fatimids succeeded in eliminating their adversaries.
Among them emerged capable caliphs
Who demonstrated a strong sense of responsibility and administrative competence, such as Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah (362–365 AH / 972–975 AD) and Al-'Aziz billah (365–386 AH / 975–996 AD).
Egypt pledged its allegiance to them, and their influence expanded to include the Hejaz and Yemen.
This occurred while the Abbasid Caliphate was preoccupied with its own internal problems. Furthermore, the Fatimids confronted the Qarmatians—who had turned against them after the cessation of the tribute payments they had previously exacted from the people of the Levant—and al-Aziz Billah succeeded in defeating them in 368 AH/978 AD, bringing the entire Levant under Fatimid rule. The Fatimids reached the zenith of their power when
Al -Mustansir Billah dispatched a military expedition to Baghdad.
The forces succeeded in entering the city and forcibly expelled the Abbasid Caliph, al-Qa'im, in 450 AH/1058 AD. Arslan ibn Abdullah al-Basasiri, a Fatimid propagandist (*da'i*), delivered a sermon from the pulpits of Baghdad in the name of his master, al-Mustansir. Al-Mustansir remained on the throne of the Caliphate for sixty years—a duration unmatched by any of his predecessors. However, signs of weakness began to permeate the state’s structures early in his reign, as he granted his viziers unchecked authority over the administration. The glories achieved by earlier caliphs faded, and Egypt descended into profound chaos, which undermined the state’s foundations and emboldened those seeking to break away. Al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Badis al-Sanhaji declared the independence of North Africa; Baghdad returned to the Abbasids; and the Levant gained independence under the Mirdasids and the Hamdanids. Meanwhile, Norman raids intensified along the North African coastlines under Fatimid rule. The caliphs in Egypt found themselves in a position similar to that of the Abbasid caliphs in Iraq—reduced to accepting whatever was granted to them by their viziers. This "era of the viziers" in Egypt began with Badr al-Jamali, an Armenian who had arrived in the country during Al-Mustansir’s reign, posing as a wealthy visitor. Al-Mustansir summoned him toward the end of his rule to help overcome the mounting difficulties, but the vizier soon seized absolute control. He was succeeded by his son, Al-Afdal, and subsequently by his grandson, Ahmad ibn al-Afdal. A succession of autocratic viziers followed—some even adopting royal titles, such as Ridwan al-Wahshi and Tala'i ibn Ruzzik—thereby paving the way for foreign intervention in the affairs of Egypt.
One of the consequences
Of this intervention was that the vizier Shawar sought the assistance of Nur ad-Din Zengi, while the vizier Dirgham ibn Amir turned to the Crusaders for help. The conflict ultimately ended with the death of Dirgham in 559 AH/1163 AD at the hands of the Egyptians, and the death of Shawar in 564 AH/1168 AD at the hands of Saladin (Salah ad-Din al-Ayyubi).
After ruling Egypt for more than two hundred years,
The Fatimids left behind a distinct civilization. Their primary focus was on organizing Shi'a thought and disseminating it as widely as possible. Furthermore, the palace of the ruler al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah—a man of a troubled personality—served as a hub for various intellectual currents that reflected the reality of Islamic society and the conditions the nation was experiencing across both its eastern and western territories. These currents were driven by elements that were:
Shi'a
Sunni
Christian
Jewish
Non-religious
The *Dar al-Hikma* (House of Wisdom), established by the ruler, served as an institution that attracted scholars from across the Islamic world to engage in research, teaching, and authorship across various sciences and arts. Among the prominent figures who frequented the court of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah were:
The renowned astronomer, Ali ibn Yunus;
The natural scientist and expert in optics, al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham;
The historian, Ibn Zulaq;
And the poets, Ibn Hani al-Andalusi and 'Amarah al-Yamani.
Perhaps one of the most brilliant figures to live during the Fatimid era in Syria was the poet and philosopher Abu al-'Ala' al-Ma'arri, who—despite his abject poverty—proudly and firmly rejected the offers extended to him by the commander of al-Mustansir’s army.
In the realm of architecture and urban development, the Fatimids left behind enduring monuments, most notably:
The city of Cairo;
The Al-Azhar Mosque;
And the city gates that still stand today—Bab Zuweila, Bab al-Nasr, and Bab al-Futuh—which serve as prime examples of the magnificent artistic legacy that earned Egypt a prominent position in this field.
The Ayyubid Era
The following the death of the Fatimid Caliph al-Adid in 567 AH/1171 AD—succeeded by the death of Nur al-Din Zengi in 570 AH/1174 AD—
Saladin (Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi), who had arrived in Egypt alongside his uncle Asad al-Din Shirkuh, became its ruler. He established an independent state in Egypt, while still acknowledging the formal suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliph. At that time, the lands of the Arab East were experiencing a political vacuum following the death of Nur al-Din, exacerbated by divisions among various commanders and influential figures. The Crusaders, meanwhile, were closely monitoring these developments, waiting for an opportune moment to intervene.
Consequently,
Saladin had no choice but to advance into the Levant (al-Sham) to consolidate his domestic power base. He marched there and brought the region under his control, uniting it with Egypt.
He then continued his campaigns against his adversaries,
He is reaching as far east as Mosul. Subsequently, he turned his attention toward North Africa, dispatching a military expedition that enabled him to seize its northern coastline and reclaim the city of Gabès from the Normans.
He dispatched another campaign to Sudan,
It's bringing it under his control. He also sent his brother, Turan-Shah, to Yemen; Turan-Shah entered the region and annexed it—along with the Hejaz—to his brother’s realm. By the end of 570 AH (1174 AD), this state had emerged as a regional power amidst the tumultuous events unfolding across the region. Once his internal position was secure, Saladin turned his attention to liberating the Levant from the Crusader forces. Under his leadership, a decisive victory was achieved at Hattin in 583 AH (1187 AD), leading to the expulsion of the Crusaders from Jerusalem, as well as from various cities and fortresses along the Levantine coast. Although the Crusaders attempted to invade Egypt on several occasions in an effort to weaken it, Saladin consistently repelled their advances and thwarted their plans; indeed, *jihad* (struggle) became a defining feature of his era.
However, following his death in 589 AH (1193 AD),
His state began to fragment due to internal discord among his brothers and sons. His brother, Al-Malik al-Adil, managed to establish control over Egypt—a territory that remained under the rule of his own descendants throughout the remainder of the Ayyubid period.
Following the death of Saladin,
Egypt became the target of successive Crusader campaigns. Saladin’s successors consistently repelled these incursions; however, the most significant confrontation occurred when al-Malik al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub, supported by his Mamluks, faced the Seventh Crusade. This campaign was led by King Louis IX of France, who sought to occupy Egypt, believing that the reconquest of Jerusalem could only be achieved by dismantling Egypt’s power. Although the Crusader forces managed to reach Damietta, they suffered a crushing defeat at Mansurah in 647 AH (1249 AD). Even though al-Salih Ayyub passed away during the conflict, Shajar al-Durr kept his death a secret. The Mamluks continued the war under the command of his son, Turan Shah, and ultimately defeated the Crusaders, killing or capturing a large number of them. Among those taken prisoner was the leader of the campaign himself, Louis IX, who was only released upon the payment of a substantial ransom and a pledge never to return for such a purpose again.
The Mamluks, brought in by the Ayyubid sultans, constituted the bulk of the army upon which the Ayyubids relied to confront their adversaries. Following the death of Sultan Najm al-Din Ayyub and the subsequent killing of his son, Turan Shah, the Mamluks seized control. They reached a consensus to install Shajar al-Durr on the throne; however, this move faced opposition from certain conservatives who objected to a woman ruling over the Muslims. Consequently, Shajar al-Durr married the *atabeg* (commander-in-chief) of the army, Izz al-Din Aybak, intending to use him as a facade through which she could exercise power. Aybak, however, took sole control and sidelined her. She attempted to have him assassinated, but his own Mamluks killed her in return. At this critical juncture—as the Mongols were sweeping through the territories of the Abbasid Caliphate from the east—the Mamluks took decisive action and chose al-Muzaffar Qutuz to serve as Sultan of Egypt.
The Bahri Mamluks
The Burji Mamluks
The second group is known as the Burji Mamluks—so named because Al-Ashraf Khalil ibn Qalawun housed them in the towers (*buruj*) of the Cairo Citadel. They were of Circassian origin. Their rule began with Faraj ibn Barquq and concluded with the death of their twenty-third sultan, Tuman Bay, in 923 AH/1517 AD. In general, the Mamluk state can be considered an extension of the Ayyubid state in terms of administration and policy. During their reign in Egypt, their authority extended over the Levant (Bilad al-Sham), the Hejaz, and parts of the Yemeni coast. They confronted the Mongols, defeating them in the famous Battle of Ain Jalut in 658 AH/1260 AD and driving them out of the Levant. Subsequently, they engaged the Crusaders, reclaiming several coastal cities from them; from these positions, they launched campaigns against Crusader strongholds and principalities until they finally brought an end to the Crusader presence in 692 AH/1292 AD. Later, when the Portuguese discovered the Cape of Good Hope, the Mamluks attempted to counter the vanguard of the Portuguese expeditions that reached the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula and the Red Sea. However, they were unsuccessful in these efforts, as their state was already on the verge of collapse following their defeat by the Ottomans at the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 922 AH/1516 AD. The curtain finally fell on the Mamluk state following the Battle of Ridaniya in 923 AH/1517 AD.
The Establishment of the Mamluk State in Egypt
Following the death of the Ayyubid Sultan al-Malik al-Salih Ayyub, the power of the Mamluks gradually increased until they were able to seize control of the reins of government. The era of the Bahri Mamluks (who ruled from 1250 to 1382 AD) marks the true beginning of the Mamluk state in Egypt.
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The Key Stages in the Establishment of the Mamluk State in Egypt
The Battle of Mansurah (1250 AD)
The Mamluks played a decisive role in defeating the Mongols and the Crusaders, which earned them a strong standing within Egyptian society.
The Accession of Saif al-Din Qutuz
He became the first true Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, succeeding in uniting the Mamluks and organizing the army, thereby initiating the Mamluk era.
The Consolidation of Political Power
The Mamluks gained control over Cairo and integrated it with the strength of the army, rendering Mamluk rule entirely independent of the Abbasid Caliphs.
The Political and Administrative Organization
The Mamluk state relied on a robust centralized system that governed all state affairs. The Sultan held supreme authority, supported by a council of senior officers and Mamluks who occupied key positions, such as:
*Sheikh al-Ashraf* (Overseers of Nobility/Elite Affairs)
Officials responsible for land and local administration.
*Al-Amir al-Kabir* (The Grand Emir)
The commander-in-chief of the army and the Sultan’s deputy in battle.
The Military Inspector
it was responsible for overseeing training and discipline within the army.
The Military *Iqta’* (Land Grant) System
The soldiers were granted land in exchange for military service, which ensured their loyalty to the Sultan.
The Military Might of the Mamluks
The Mamluk state was renowned for its formidable military power, which enabled it to rival the strongest armies of the era. The Mamluk military relied on:
The Heavy cavalry
The troops trained in combat using swords and spears.
The Trained infantry
The soldiers armed with bows, crossbows, and various melee weapons.
The Early artillery
The systems that were later developed to counter invaders and the Mongols.
The key Military Victories
The Battle of Ain Jalut (1260 AD)
The defeat of the Mongols halted their expansion into the Middle East—a victory that established Egypt as a global military power.
The Confronting the Crusaders
The expulsion of the Crusaders from most coastal cities in Palestine and Lebanon earned the Mamluks great renown throughout the Islamic world.
The Wars against the Ottoman Empire and Internal Mamluk Conflicts
The despite the challenges in maintaining control, the Mamluks succeeded in preserving Egypt’s independence for over two centuries.
The Culture and Architecture in the Mamluk Era
The role of the Mamluks was not limited to military might; they also established a prominent cultural and artistic civilization. In Cairo, mosques, madrasas (schools), hospitals, and palaces stand as testaments to the grandeur of this era.
The Key Cultural Achievements
The Mosques and Minarets
The structures such as the Mosque of Sultan Hassan and the Qalawun Complex exemplify the Mamluks' mastery of Islamic architecture.
The Educational Institutions (Madrasas)
They established schools for the study of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), the Hadith (prophetic traditions), and the Arabic language, with Cairo emerging as a significant center of scholarship.
The Calligraphy and the Arts
The arabic calligraphy and distinctive architectural ornamentation flourished, and Mamluk art developed its own unique style.
The End of the Mamluk State
Despite its strength, the Mamluk state faced major internal and external challenges, which ultimately led to its collapse.
The Reasons for the Collapse
The Internal Weakness
The divisions among the Mamluks and the emirs, administrative corruption, and persistent power struggles.
The External Threat
The rise of the Ottoman Empire, which possessed a modern army and advanced technologies.
The Battle of Ridaniyya (1517 AD)
The Ottomans defeated the Mamluks—led by Sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri—marking the end of the Mamluk state in Egypt and the incorporation of Egypt into the Ottoman Empire.
The Legacy of the Mamluks
Despite the collapse of their state, the Mamluks left behind a great legacy in Egypt and the Islamic world.
The Architecture and the Arts
Cairo remains home to dozens of Mamluk-era landmarks that continue to attract tourists and scholars alike.
The Military System
They established a unique model for military organization and administration.
The Cultural Identity
They played a vital role in preserving Islam and Arab intellectual tradition in Egypt and the Levant.
What do you know about the "Golden Age of the Mamluks"?
The history of the Mamluk state in Egypt represents a golden age of military might, as well as cultural and political prosperity.
The Mamluks proved that they were far more than mere enslaved soldiers; they were leaders and rulers capable of forging a powerful and flourishing state. From their origins as enslaved individuals to their rise as military rulers—spanning major battles and historic victories, and concluding with their eventual fall to the Ottoman Empire—the history of the Mamluks stands as a testament to their genius in military and civil organization.
