The army was the primary pillar upon which Muhammad Ali built the foundation of an independent Egypt; without it, the Egyptian state would never have come into existence. Muhammad Ali envisioned the creation of a modern Egyptian state, focusing on development—the essential raw material for national prosperity—and striving to establish a strong, modern army. Indeed, the demand for such an army became a paramount objective for various revolutions and national movements, from the era of Urabi to that of the Free Officers. The Egyptian army under the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha thus represents a genuine turning point in modern Egyptian history, marking a transition from a state of weakness and fragmentation to a disciplined, organized, regular army modeled on European standards.
What was the state of the Egyptian army before Muhammad Ali came to power?
At that time, the army was merely a disorganized collection of individuals, lacking any cohesion or discipline.
Most of them were Albanians and Circassians—meaning they were not Egyptian by origin and had no concern for the country’s interests. They were known as "Bashi-bazouks"—a term used for irregular soldiers who fought without any established rules or formal structure.
These soldiers lacked any sense of allegiance or genuine leadership.
Consequently, they were easily swayed by the political instability and unrest within the Ottoman Empire, as well as by the conflicts and battles among the Mamluks.
There were also groups of Bedouins who occasionally participated in the army.
Rather than ensuring security, their presence posed a threat to it; they operated like bandits, employing "hit-and-run" tactics—attacking and then fleeing, leaving the local population to face the consequences of their actions.
The concept behind establishing or developing the army stemmed from several initiatives
The founding of a medical school—for instance, Muhammad Ali Pasha’s decision to establish such an institution was primarily driven by the need to train physicians for the army.
The establishment of industrial facilities—such as spinning and textile mills—was primarily intended to supply the army and its soldiers with weapons, ammunition, and clothing.
Furthermore, it became necessary to prepare the infrastructure required to house the troops, including the construction of barracks, military camps, and hospitals.
The training of officers necessitated the establishment of various types of military schools.
The creation of state schools was primarily intended to educate students, specifically preparing them to become officers and engineers.
Similarly, the dispatching of educational missions to Europe was primarily aimed at securing a sufficient number of officers, as well as professors, scholars, and engineers—all of whom were, in one way or another, connected to the military apparatus.
Admittedly, these institutions—along with others—also served broader developmental and civil purposes
As for the military, it was the very first priority for Muhammad Ali.
Thus, beyond its primary mission of defending the nation’s independence, the army served as an instrument for the advancement of civilization and development in Egypt. In this respect, it stands as one of Muhammad Ali Pasha’s most significant achievements; every effort invested and every expense incurred for its sake was well-placed and justified—nothing was in vain, and nothing went to waste.
The reasons for Muhammad Ali Pasha’s Establishment of a Large Army for Egypt:
1- It is certain that, had it not been for the strength of this army, the independence Egypt attained during his reign would have been lost.
2- Had an Egyptian army not been established, Turkey would have reclaimed its former privileges in the country, reducing Egypt to a province governed directly—much like the other provinces of the Ottoman Empire.
3- England might well have occupied the country with its own forces, especially when European powers turned against Muhammad Ali Pasha and deployed their naval and land forces in Syria and along the Egyptian coast.
4- Had this army not been prepared for combat and ready to defend the homeland, England could have easily invaded Egypt—much as it did in 1882, at a time when there was neither an army, nor a defense, nor any fortifications to protect the nation.
5- Muhammad Ali Pasha sought to exert control over the various regions and maintain security; the strength of the Egyptian army would prove instrumental in suppressing Mamluk rebellions throughout the country, thereby enabling him to pursue his economic projects in trade, industry, and agriculture.
6- Muhammad Ali Pasha had personally observed European armies in combat and witnessed the high level of organization, training, and discipline they possessed. Consequently, he decided to introduce this model to Egypt by building an army along European lines—comprising regular soldiers, educated officers, modern weaponry, and systematic training.
7- During that period, it was the Egyptian army that secured and safeguarded independence for over sixty years.
In truth, among all of Muhammad Ali’s undertakings, none received as much of his attention as the Egyptian army.
The plan to establish an Egyptian army dates back to 1820 AD.
Muhammad Ali Pasha set out to build a regular Egyptian army; prior to this era, the military consisted of a motley collection of elements prone to rebellion and chaos—known as "Bashi-bazouks," or irregular soldiers.
Such a force could hardly be relied upon to enhance Egypt’s prestige, defend its sovereignty, or expand its borders. Consequently, from the moment he ascended to power in Egypt, Muhammad Ali began contemplating the creation of an army based on a new, modern system.
However,
The circumstances were not initially in his favor, so he deferred the implementation of his vision until a suitable opportunity arose. He encountered significant difficulties in this endeavor, as the irregular soldiers who made up the old army were accustomed to disorder and insubordination, and they harbored a deep aversion to any form of discipline or organized system.
The Mechanisms for Establishing the Egyptian Army During the Era of Muhammad Ali
1- The Egyptian Fleet and Ports
Muhammad Ali Pasha did not stop at forming an army; he also sought to possess a fleet. He purchased warships from Europe and had similar vessels constructed within Egypt. Within a few years, he had established a fleet that rivaled those of European nations, along with major ports capable of accommodating his numerous ships.
2- The Training
During the era of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the training of the Egyptian army was considered one of the most advanced military modernization programs in the region at the time. Muhammad Ali aimed to transform the military from an irregular force into a modern, European-style army.
The key features of the training included:
Adopting the European military system—
specifically the French model—for the organization of units, training, and military discipline.
Enlisting European officers and experts—
such as the notable Sulayman Pasha al-Faransawi, who played a pivotal role in building the modern army—to train Egyptian soldiers.
Intensive daily training—
covering infantry tactics, the use of firearms, marksmanship, military maneuvers, formation drills, and long-distance marching.
Establishing specialized military schools—
for infantry, cavalry, artillery, and general staff—to train and qualify officers both academically and militarily.
Integrating the study of military sciences and engineering—
alongside field training, which helped enhance the competence of officers and commanders.
Sending educational missions to Europe
to learn the latest military methods, with the intention of returning to apply them in Egypt.
As a result of this training, the Egyptian army became a formidable military force capable of conducting successful campaigns in the Arabian Peninsula, Sudan, and the Levant, emerging as one of the most powerful armies in the Middle East during the first half of the nineteenth century.
3- Discipline
Discipline within the Egyptian army under Muhammad Ali Pasha was exceptionally rigorous, especially when compared to the standards prevalent in the traditional armies of the region at the time.
The key aspects of this discipline included:
The strict adherence to military orders,
requiring soldiers to execute the commands of their superiors precisely and without hesitation.
Fixed schedules
for training and daily tasks, accompanied by constant oversight of the soldiers' performance.
The severe penalties for those who violated regulations,
including imprisonment or other military sanctions, aimed at maintaining order within the units.
The uniforms, as well as organized formations and marching,
which were relatively new concepts for Egyptian soldiers at the time.
A clear, European-style hierarchy of command,
extending from officers down to the rank-and-file, which fostered obedience and organization.
Initially, this strict system of conscription and training met with resistance from some of the conscripted peasants, who were unaccustomed to such a high level of military discipline. Over time, however, it contributed to the creation of a well-organized army that achieved significant military successes in campaigns across the Arabian Peninsula, Sudan, and the Levant.
The Egyptian Army and Navy During the Era of Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali Pasha set out to build a modern army for Egypt. His first attempt, in 1815, unfortunately encountered significant problems and ultimately failed. In August 1815, Muhammad Ali Pasha ordered the formation of a new army and began training a group of soldiers in Aswan. The task was entrusted to his son, Ibrahim Pasha—who served as the commander-in-chief of the Egyptian forces—assisted by a group of Turkish officers.
At the time, Muhammad Ali Pasha was influenced by European military models; he envisioned an Egyptian army organized along similar lines, featuring formal military training and parades. Consequently, he issued orders for the soldiers to be taught military salutes, obedience to commands, and discipline during drills and maneuvers.
To achieve this,
He ineeded to establish the nucleus of a regular army. However, creating an army from individuals unaccustomed to order and discipline posed a substantial risk. He therefore opted for a clever and cautious approach: the establishment of a secret training center in Aswan.
The Secret Training Center in Aswan During the Era of Muhammad Ali
This refers to the military academy in Aswan, established by Muhammad Ali to train the core of a modern Egyptian army. Muhammad Ali deliberately chose Aswan because of its distance from Cairo—far from the prying eyes of opponents and the reach of political intrigue—as he sought to implement his new military project in complete quiet and secrecy. To this end, in 1820, he dispatched a French officer known as Colonel Sève (later Suleiman Pasha al-Faransawi) to train a group of Mamluks and young men in modern European military systems.
The other reasons for selecting Aswan included:
Ensuring the project could proceed away from public scrutiny and opposition.
Avoiding friction with traditional soldiers who resisted the introduction of new military systems.
Shielding the trainees from distractions and fostering a focus on strict military discipline.
Muhammad Ali constructed four large barracks in Aswan
to house the trainees, transforming the site into the first military academy dedicated to forming a modern, regular Egyptian army.
After approximately three years of training,
this group became the nucleus of the first officer corps for the Egyptian army.
For this reason, the initiative is sometimes described as the "secret training center in Aswan," as it was managed discreetly to ensure the success of Muhammad Ali’s plan to establish a modern military force.
Aswan was chosen precisely because it was removed from the public eye and the heart of major urban centers; it served as a secure environment where young recruits could train comfortably and master the discipline of military life, far from the gaze of those who opposed the reforms. Four large barracks were established there, serving effectively as quarters for students tasked with learning the principles of modern military life: discipline, obedience, weapons training, and the European art of war. This was no ordinary military school; rather, it marked the emergence of a new core of combatants—individuals trained under a different system to serve as the foundation for a future army.
Muhammad Ali Pasha had initially considered forming an Egyptian army composed of Turks; however, frequent revolts and rebellions rendered this idea untenable, as he could not build an army upon elements that might eventually turn against him. At the same time, relying directly on the native Egyptian population posed a significant risk, given that they had not been accustomed to military service for many generations.
Ultimately, he found only one viable solution: to recruit the army from the people of Sudan. He brought 30,000 of them to Manfalut in Upper Egypt, thereby launching the project of an Egyptian army under the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha.
The Challenges Faced by the Egyptian Army Under Muhammad Ali
Despite all the efforts Muhammad Ali Pasha invested in building his modern army, he did not initially achieve complete success.
The Reasons for the Initial Lack of Success
The early attempts failed; furthermore, death spread among the Sudanese soldiers—thousands of whom perished—as the environment was ill-suited for them, and they lacked the physical endurance required for the rigors of the military training and discipline that Muhammad Ali Pasha demanded.
Muhammad Ali Pasha was not a man who recognized the word "failure." On the contrary, this experience only strengthened his resolve. He decided to take a bold, consequential step—one he had long hesitated to pursue: the conscription of the Egyptians themselves.
He issued orders to gather young men from the villages to form the new army. At the time, the Egyptian population was shocked, viewing the decision as a catastrophe; military service and forced conscription were entirely alien concepts, having been abandoned for centuries.
Muhammad Ali Pasha met this outrage with firm resolve, suppressing any nascent attempts at rebellion. Over time, however, the Egyptians began to adapt—especially as they realized that military life offered structure, decent food, proper uniforms, and a standard of living superior to what they had known in the countryside.
As time passed, those who had once fled from service began to take pride in it. From these ranks emerged the true nucleus of a modern Egyptian army—an army forged through determination and blood, marking the beginning of Egypt’s military journey. It was in this context that a significant figure emerged—a man credited with a foundational role in the establishment of the Egyptian army: Sulayman Pasha al-Faransawi (the Frenchman).
Having been compelled to use force to gather recruits, as previously noted, Muhammad Ali Pasha took a further step: he enlisted the expertise of European officers. To teach the Egyptians modern military systems, he sought the help of a prominent French officer named Colonel Sève—later known as Suleiman Pasha al-Faransawi—who had served in Napoleon’s army. He played a pivotal role in organizing the military camps and training the Egyptian army in the use of weaponry, discipline, and obedience.
The task, however, was far from easy. The soldiers were unaccustomed to taking orders from anyone, let alone a European officer. Acts of rebellion ensued, and there was even an attempt on his life; a soldier fired a shot that whizzed past his ear. Instead of punishing the man, the Colonel took the rifle and personally showed the soldier how to hit the target. Through this display of composure, he gradually earned their respect, one by one.
To bridge the divide between himself and the men entirely, he converted to Islam and adopted the name "Suleiman." This transformed how he was perceived. After three years of rigorous training, the first cohort of Egyptian officers—numbering around six thousand—graduated. They formed the true nucleus of a modern Egyptian army, and it was then that Egypt’s military history began to take its definitive shape.
The Military Education System During the Era of Muhammad Ali Pasha
Muhammad Ali Pasha did not limit his efforts to mere conscription and training; he also deemed it essential that soldiers, upon completing their training, possess a clear understanding of military life. To this end, he established a number of significant military schools, including:
The Aswan School
It ocnsidered the first modern-style military school in Egypt, it was founded by Muhammad Ali Pasha to train officers and soldiers in contemporary European military systems. Shortly thereafter, he opened similar institutions in locations such as Farshut, al-Nukhayla, and Girga—a phase that marked a major expansion throughout Upper Egypt.
Al-Qasr al-Ayni School
It sttablished in 1825, this school accommodated between 500 and 600 students—both Egyptians and Turks—aged 12 to 16. The curriculum extended beyond military sciences to include Arabic, Turkish, and Italian, as well as drawing, engineering, and arithmetic. Upon graduation, students were assigned to higher military academies. Over time, the student body grew, reaching 1,200 by 1834.
Al-Bayada (Infantry) School in Al-Khanka
It's founded in 1832, this school was designed to train infantry officers and personnel. It enrolled 400 Egyptian students who studied in the Al-Khanka area for three years. Their training encompassed military drills and administration, alongside the study of Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and topography (map-making), as well as subjects such as drawing, engineering, and mathematics. Its first director was a French officer from Napoleon’s army named Yolonini; he was later succeeded by Yusuf Agha. Two years later, the school was relocated to the governorate of Damietta.
The General Staff School
it sstablished on October 15, 1825, in the village of Jihadabad—near the Al-Khanka military camp—this school was proposed by Osman Nureddin Effendi, a prominent figure of the era who assisted Muhammad Ali Pasha in building modern Egypt. Following the approval of the proposal, the French officer Jules Planat was placed in charge of the institution. As its name suggests, the school trained general staff officers—those responsible for planning and managing battles. The first graduating class consisted of approximately 18 officers. The course of study lasted three years, and upon graduation, the officers were assigned to military units to serve as aides to army commanders.
The Artillery School at Tora
It stablished in 1831, this school accommodated 300 students—all graduates of the Qasr al-Ayni School. The curriculum included mathematics, chemistry, technical drawing, geometry, mechanics, and surveying. Students were instructed in both Arabic and Turkish, and they received training in the use of field artillery and mortars. Upon graduation, they were assigned to artillery units within the army or to the naval artillery corps.
The Cavalry School (Al-Sawari) in Giza
This was a significant military institution, established in 1831 within the palace of Murad Bey in Giza, which was converted into a cavalry barracks. It was directed by a French officer named Monsieur Varin. The student body consisted of approximately 200 graduates from the preparatory school. The course of study lasted three to four years, during which students were trained in horsemanship, equestrian skills, languages, and military tactics. A German instructor named Herr Beer taught them the arts of horsemanship and swordsmanship. The institution was known as the "Cavalry School" because the students wore uniforms that closely resembled those of French cavalrymen.
The School of Medicine and the Military Hospital
This was one of the most important military educational institutions in modern Egypt. Established between Al-Khanka and Abu Zaabal, it was overseen by the renowned physician Clot Bey, the chief medical officer of the army. It began with 140 medical students and 50 pharmacy students. The hospital contained approximately 730 beds for the treatment of soldiers. Additionally, a health council was established to oversee public health and to examine physicians and pharmacists before they were admitted into the army.
The dschool of Veterinary Medicine
it sstablished in 1837 adjacent to the military hospital, the school accommodated 120 students. Initially, it was staffed by foreign instructors—such as Monsieur Hamon—before its administration was later taken over by Egyptians. The school was of great importance, as the Egyptian army relied heavily on horses and camels; consequently, the presence of veterinarians was essential to provide care for these animals, especially during times of crisis. The school was later relocated to Shubra.
The School of Military Engineering
It's located in Bulaq and established in 1844, this school trained engineers specialized in the construction of canals, bridges, roads, and military fortifications. In other words, students were instructed in all aspects related to military infrastructure.
The Military Music Schools
There was even a school for military music. Initially located at a camp called Jihadabad, it was later moved to the Khanka camp and accommodated 200 students. Additional music schools were subsequently established at the Citadel. Students learned to play European instruments under the supervision of European instructors, led by a director named Monsieur Carré. The students excelled in their performance and mastery of musical notation; however, Clot Bey observed that European music did not resonate deeply with the emotions of the Egyptians, and he therefore suggested blending Eastern melodies with Western ones.
The Literacy Schools
Another significant type of school that served the military was the literacy school, which focused on teaching soldiers reading, writing, and arithmetic. These schools were established within military units and the naval fleet. Soldiers who demonstrated exceptional aptitude in their studies were granted faster promotions than their peers.
The Educational Missions and the Development of the Egyptian Army under Muhammad Ali Pasha
Muhammad Ali Pasha did not limit himself to educating students within Egyptian military academies; he also dispatched them on educational missions abroad. He recognized that the Egyptian army still required foreign expertise—having relied heavily on Europeans to assist in training and organizing the troops—a situation that did not align with his aspirations for independence. Consequently, he decided to send Egyptians abroad to study European curricula, with the intention that they would return to educate their fellow countrymen.
Indeed, Muhammad Ali Pasha began selecting the brightest and most capable young men who had been educated in Egyptian military schools, sending them on academic missions to Europe—particularly to France—where they pursued further studies in military arts, engineering, mathematics, and military tactics.
Upon their return to Egypt, they assumed leadership and instructional roles within the army, replacing foreign personnel. This transition proved successful, as the country came to be served by highly talented Egyptian instructors and experts in military education, some of whom went on to hold very senior positions within the state.
Regarding the size of the Egyptian army during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Frenchman Baron Boislecomte—who arrived in Egypt on a political mission in 1833—met with Muhammad Ali himself and obtained an official statement detailing the army's strength at that time. The document indicated that the Egyptian army consisted of 194,932 personnel, including 25,143 sailors.
Furthermore, the French physician Clot Bey noted in his writings that the Egyptian army reached its peak in 1839, numbering 235,880 soldiers. By the standards of the nineteenth century, this was an exceptionally large force, making Egypt one of the most formidable military powers in the Middle East at that time.
The Uniform of the Egyptian Soldier During the Era of Muhammad Ali Pasha
Clot Bey described the uniform of the Egyptian soldier during the era of Muhammad Ali Pasha, noting that it consisted of:
A red *tarboosh* (fez) worn on the head.
A *sidar* (vest/jacket) and loose-fitting trousers, similar to traditional local *sarwal* (breeches).
The trousers secured at the waist with a drawstring or fabric sash, and tied below the knee with a band known as a *qalshin*
In winter,
the uniform was made of thick wool (*jukh*), while in summer, it consisted of a relatively heavy cotton fabric.
The cavalrymen, artillerymen, and the Guard wore blue *sidars* in the winter, whereas the rest of the army wore red ones.
In the summer,
the entire army wore white.
As for footwear,
All soldiers and officers wore *markoub*—red leather shoes
The officers wore uniforms similar in style to those of the soldiers, though of higher quality; the wool or fabric was finer and softer, featuring subtle embroidery that indicated rank. The color red served to distinguish officers from soldiers, while specific insignia worn on the chest denoted their respective ranks, such as:
*Ambashi* (Corporal)
*Jawish* (Sergeant)
*Bash-jawish* (Sergeant Major)
*Mulazim Awwal* (First Lieutenant)
*Yuzbashi* (Captain)
*Sagh* (Major)
*Bikbashi* (Lieutenant Colonel)
*Qa'imqam* (Colonel)
*Amiralay* (Brigadier General)
*Amir al-Liwa* (Major General)
*Fariq* (Lieutenant General / *Mir-Miran*)
During the era of Muhammad Ali Pasha,
The Egyptian army was not concentrated solely in Cairo; rather, it was distributed across various cities to protect the borders of Egypt and its empire—which, at the time, extended into the Levant (Bilad al-Sham), the Hejaz, and Sudan. Military bases were established in cities including Damascus, Aleppo, Homs, Antioch, and Acre. Latakia, Yemen, Sudan, the Hejaz, Cairo, and Alexandria—each of these cities housed, more or less, an entire battalion responsible for security, training, and defense.
