Muhammad Ali’s strategy for developing Egypt’s agricultural landscape was unprecedented in the country’s history. Muhammad Ali Pasha was less a man of war and more a man of production, development, and construction across all facets of life. He possessed a strategic vision that transformed the face of Egypt. Although it is known that he was illiterate—unable to read or write a single word—his thinking was sound. As the saying goes, behind any endeavor—whether successful or unsuccessful—lies an underlying intent to derive benefit. Muhammad Ali Pasha’s work was remarkably successful; so much so that his achievements have been studied for generations following his death. While intent precedes action, it is one’s practical accomplishments that define one’s legacy long after one is gone. Let us now examine the agricultural philosophy of this man.
The agriculture during the era of Muhammad Ali Pasha (1805–1848) underwent a radical transformation. It was an integral part of his broader project to modernize the Egyptian realm and develop it into an economic and military power, independent of both Ottoman and Western influence.
1- Expansion of the Agricultural Area
His strategy in this regard consisted of the following:
a - He encouraged the cultivation of new lands, particularly in the Delta and Upper Egypt (the Sa'id).
b - Vast tracts of previously uncultivated land were reclaimed.
2- Encouraged the production of new crops,
Such as cash crops (commercial crops)
The cash crops are those grown primarily for sale and profit, rather than for direct consumption by the farmer or their family. The introduction of new cash crops transformed Egypt into an agricultural powerhouse for exports.
The emphasis was placed on the cultivation of long-staple cotton (Egyptian cotton), which became a strategic crop and a significant export.
- The cultivation of sugarcane was also encouraged.
G - Encourage mulberry cultivation (for silkworm breeding and silk production)
(S - Encourage the cultivation of wheat)
3- The Monopoly
Muhammad Ali imposed a monopoly system on agriculture, whereby the state became the de facto owner of all agricultural land. Peasants functioned as "producers" for the state; they were required to hand over their crops to the government at a fixed price, and the state, in turn, would sell these goods both domestically and internationally.
4- The relying on the cultivation of export crops, such as the renowned Egyptian long-staple cotton—or even short-staple varieties. This, in itself, was a forward-thinking approach, ahead of its time. In the early stages of economic development, an economy often requires foreign investment to bring in a currency different from its own—one that may be more abundant or valuable—thereby enriching and revitalizing the developing nation. This allows for trade without resorting to debt, which only leads to ruin. Seeking such investment periodically is not inherently flawed; the real problem lies in the mismanagement of funds once they are acquired—for instance, failing to reinvest in the very product that generated the revenue in order to expand production. Another issue is the lack of accountability for squandering funds on improper expenditures, rather than channeling them back into the production of the original commodity.
5- The Land Redistribution
Muhammad Ali confiscated the vast majority of *waqf* (endowment) lands, as well as lands previously held by the Mamluks and the nobility. Later, he began granting extensive tracts of land to high-ranking officials and members of his own family, which paved the way for the emergence of a class of large landowners.
A brief remark
Was he entitled to do this? Did he intend to strip Egyptians of their property rights, transferring ownership instead to his own kin, inner circle, and senior officials to ensure their absolute loyalty to him? If so, then just as any individual may possess certain merits, they may also commit major errors—the kind that history might never forgive.
6- The Major Irrigation Projects
He constructed barrages and reservoirs, and expanded the network of canals—such as the Mahmoudiyah Canal, which connects the Nile to Alexandria—to deliver water to new areas. He also introduced a system of perennial irrigation, moving away from a reliance solely on the annual flooding of the Nile.
The Comment
We all know that approximately 70% of the Earth’s surface is water, while the remaining 30% is land. However, most of this water is saline and entirely unsuitable for agriculture; fresh water accounts for no more than 3%—not 30%—of the total. This means that as global warming intensifies, water-related challenges will only grow, potentially even leading to conflicts—not just in some distant future, but in the very era we live in today; in a sense, we are already living in that "future." Therefore, Muhammad Ali Pasha’s expansion of the canal network is a truly remarkable achievement for which he deserves historical recognition. The Mahmoudiyah Canal, for instance, still exists in Egypt to this day, carrying fresh water—a concept previously unknown to the Egyptians. Furthermore, the fact that it has endured for at least two centuries—regardless of its current condition or who might be responsible for its state—is a testament to the fact that this man was genuinely committed to improving this glorious country.
7 - The agro-industrial Production
Muhammad Ali established factories based on agricultural products, such as:
Cotton gins
Sugar refineries
Silk mills
8 - The introduction of Technology and Modern Methods
Developing irrigation systems and introducing perennial irrigation, moving beyond reliance solely on the annual Nile flood.
Digging canals and constructing barrages (dams) to improve water distribution
Introducing new crops—most notably long-staple cotton—to boost production and exports.
Enlisting foreign experts to improve agricultural and irrigation techniques and increase productivity.
Utilizing more advanced seeds and agricultural tools, and establishing schools to teach modern farming practices.
The most prominent crops during the era of Muhammad Ali Pasha included:
Wheat, barley, rice, fava beans, lentils, chickpeas, maize, lupin, saffron, clover (berseem), sugarcane, hemp (jute/kenaf), flax, indigo, safflower, tobacco, henna, onions, sesame, *salham* (a type of leafy green/herb), *asfar* (safflower), vegetables, fruits, and a small amount of poor-quality cotton.
Muhammad Ali sought to expand the scope of agriculture by introducing new varieties, which increased Egypt’s agricultural wealth.
1- Planting Mulberry Trees in Sharqia Governorate
He focused on planting mulberry trees to facilitate the rearing of silkworms. For this project, he selected lands in Wadi al-Tumaylat, in the Sharqia Governorate, allocating 3,000 feddans for the cultivation of these trees.
To support the mulberry plantations, he provided:
2,000 farmers;
6,000 head of livestock;
Approximately 1,000 waterwheels (saqiyas) for irrigation.
He also brought 500 farmers and artisans—specialists in silkworm rearing—from Syria and Lebanon.
The subsequently, he expanded the planting of mulberry trees to the following governorates:
Dakahlia, Monufia, Gharbia, Qalyubia, Damietta, Rashid (Rosetta), and Giza.
Al-Jabarti noted that the planting of mulberry trees in Wadi al-Tumaylat began in March 1817. The project was carried out through the completion of waterwheel construction and tree planting, the deployment of farmers to develop the valley, the building of hamlets and dwellings for them, and the recruitment of specialized workers and farmers skilled in silkworm rearing from the Levant (Syria and Lebanon).
Regarding the events of the month of Rajab in the year 1235 AH (April 1820 AD), it is noted that the Pasha "traveled to the valley [Wadi al-Tumaylat] to inspect the new developments—including buildings, farms, and water-lifting wheels (saqiyas)—that had taken shape there. This valley had effectively become a distinct region, populated with villages, dwellings, and agricultural estates. A total of 3,000 feddans in Wadi al-Tumaylat, along with another 7,000 feddans in other provinces, were allocated for the planting of mulberry trees. Across Egypt, the number of mulberry trees reached three million—calculated at a density of 300 trees per feddan—and the silk harvest for the year 1832–1833 amounted to 12,000 [units]."
It is evident from the foregoing that the experiment with silkworms in the regions where mulberry trees were planted proved highly successful. However, it was later struck by a disease that also afflicted silkworms in Europe; this led to a decline in production, compromised the quality of the silkworm "seeds" (eggs), and resulted in the eventual neglect of sericulture during the latter part of the era of Muhammad Ali.
