The Mamluks ruled Egypt and Syria for 250 years, and the Mamluk Sultanate was the largest Islamic empire in the late Middle Ages

First: Who were the Mamluks? Were they Egyptian or Arab?

The Mamluks were a class of people who served various empires, sultans, and caliphs in ancient times as soldiers under their command. Later, they gained their own authority. Most Mamluks came from non-Muslim families.

Where did they originate?

They originated in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Turkey.

Why was their kingdom called a sultanate?

Because they rose to the highest positions in the state through non-hereditary means

Who first recruited them and hy? Since they were not of Muslim or Arab origin?

The recruitment of Mamluks began in the 9th century by the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad.

After converting to Islam, they were trained in cavalry to become soldiers and a force supporting the army under the direct command of the ruler. Their training was rigorous and meticulous, and some were appointed to high-ranking leadership positions in the state. The main reason for recruiting Mamluks was to avoid recruiting members of tribes who were loyal to their tribal leaders, contrary to the ruler's orders.

Did the Mamluks have any connection to the leadership of the Muslim armies or the nobility?

The Mamluks had no connection to the army commanders or the nobility. They were subordinate to the ruler, who was their sole authority.

What did Saladin's army consist of?

Arabs

Mamluks

Kurds

Turkmen

Others

When did the Mamluks begin to assume power?

The Mamluk Sultanate was established in 1169 CE when Egypt was under the control of Saladin. At that time, the Mamluks were part of the army, along with Arabs, Kurds, Turkmen, and others. The Mamluks remained part of the armies after Saladin's reign. It is reported that Sultan al-Salih Ayyub was known for attracting Turkish Mamluks to his side, both to protect against a potential coup by members of the Ayyubid family and to defend against Crusader attacks.

The Beginning of the Story

During the period 1240-1249 CE

The King Al-Salih Ayyub died after nine years of ruling Egypt

A conflict erupted between the legitimate heir to the throne and the Mamluk leaders.

The Mamluks succeeded in seizing power and installing a sultan for their state, establishing Cairo as their capital. Cairo became, during their reign, an economic and cultural center of the Islamic world.

The Mamluks also imposed their control over Syria during the period 1250-1517 CE

After consolidating their rule in Egypt, they ruled Egypt and Syria for over 250 years. It wasn't long before the Mamluk state became the largest Islamic empire of the late Middle Ages.

It is worth noting that the Mamluks later controlled Mecca and Medina.

The Mamluk system of government was non-hereditary, meaning that the highest positions in the state were attained through succession. This is why historians refer to their state as a sultanate.

The historians divide the Mamluk rulers into two main periods:

The Turkish rulers, from 1250 to 1382 CE – the Bahri period –

Their capital was Manial Island on the Nile

The rulers of this period established a hereditary system of government and created ruling dynasties. The Circassian rulers: The Circassians ruled the Mamluks from 1382 to 1517 CE. This period is known as the Burji Mamluk period, named after their headquarters in the Cairo Citadel. During this time, certain ethnic groups became dominant among the Mamluks, particularly after the reign of Barquq, which began in 1382 CE. The number of Mamluks also increased significantly during this period.

The Mamluks achieved several victories, most notably the following

The Mamluks defeated the Mongol armies under Sultan Qutuz.

The Mamluks fought the Crusaders in Syria and Egypt and triumphed over them under several sultans, including Baybars, Qalawun, and Khalil.

How did the Mamluk Sultanate collapse afterward?

The Ottomans entered Egypt and overthrew Mamluk rule during the period 1516-1517 CE. However, some Mamluks managed to maintain their control and influence in Egypt and continued to exist as part of Egyptian society. They joined the Ottoman army and quickly formed its core, rising to high positions in the Ottoman state. The privileges of Mamluk descendants were restored, allowing them to serve in the Ottoman state after being deprived of them for a long time. Their power increased due to their ancestral ties with the people of their former state.

Numerous attempts were made by the Mamluks to consolidate their power and influence within the state.

The return to a hereditary system of government was one of the reasons for the resurgence of Mamluk rule. Their control of the government continued until it was finally overthrown by Muhammad Ali Pasha in 1811, thus ending the Mamluk era.

The historians agree that the decline of the Mamluk state began gradually after 1382.

A several factors contributed to the collapse of the Mamluk Sultanate, most notably the following

1- The economic Factors

The economic system collapsed under the Circassian sultans due to widespread epidemics in Egypt at that time. This led to a decline in trade and agriculture. Furthermore, Portuguese attacks on maritime trade caravans in the Indian Ocean weakened the Mamluk Sultanate's economy. Military Factors: Internal divisions within the army weakened the Mamluk Sultanate's power against external enemies and rendered it incapable of protecting merchants from attacks. Naval attacks from Venice and Genoa were frequent, in addition to Cypriot attacks on Alexandria.

2- The Racial Discrimination

The Circassian rulers favored those of their own ethnicity and lineage in distributing positions of power, allowing Circassians to rise to positions of authority while excluding others. Weak Rule: The Mamluk Sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri ruled from 1501 to 1516 CE. This period was marked by numerous internal and external crises that the Sultanate was unable to address. Many wars also took place during this time, the last of which was the Ottoman invasion led by Sultan Selim I, in which Qansuh al-Ghawri was killed.

What was the relationship between the Mamluks in Egypt and France?

It is worth noting that Egypt was invaded by Napoleon in 1798.

Afterward, specifically at the beginning of the 19th century, many Mamluks joined Napoleon's forces. Napoleon had a guard, one of whom was a Mamluk named Rostand, an Egyptian Mamluk. Later, a contingent of Mamluk cavalry was added to a French military unit, despite a law prohibiting the service of foreigners in the military.

The Achievements of the Mamluks

The memory of the Mamluks remains firmly established to this day due to their brilliance in administrative, military, and artistic fields. The influence of their architectural prowess is still evident in many places, such as Egypt and Syria. Among the most prominent achievements of the Mamluks in designing and constructing mosques, schools, bridges, and water fountains.

During the Mamluk Turkish Rule

1- The Mamluks Excelled in Architecture

In the early period of their rule, and continuing until the end of the Mamluk state, they excelled in architecture. They also manufactured many tools used in construction work.

2- The trade

The Mamluk trade flourished across vast areas of the land, most notably in the trade of spices and silk.

3- The Art of Decoration

The Mamluks were renowned for their decorative arts; they excelled in decorating glass with paint and gold.

4- In the Production of Metals and Luxurious Textiles

The Mamluks produced inlaid metalwork, luxurious textiles, and woodwork.

5. They built

Many religious schools, shrines, minarets, and hospitals.

During the Mamluk Circassian Period

During this period, the Mamluks followed in the footsteps of the Ottoman Mamluks in architecture and trade, given their significant global importance. Mamluk trade expanded considerably between Iran and Europe, and trade along the Hajj route to Mecca was also crucial, leading to the expansion of commercial markets and the increase in religious institutions.

The Circassians are

an ethnic group living in the Caucasus region. They have a long history and rich culture and are considered among the oldest known peoples of the region. The Circassians inhabit the North Caucasus, a mountainous region located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. They are part of the Caucasian peoples, characterized by great cultural and linguistic diversity. It is believed that the name "Circassian" was given by the Kurds or Greeks to a group of Caucasian peoples such as the Adyghe, Abkhaz, and Chechens. The Circassians refer to themselves as "Adyghe."

Now: What were the reasons for the Upper Egyptian massacre of the Mamluks? Who planned it? And why did they relinquish power in Egypt?

A summary,

The Citadel Massacre, or the Massacre of the Mamluks, is a famous event in Egyptian history orchestrated by Muhammad Ali Pasha to eliminate his Mamluk enemies. When he received an invitation from the Sublime Porte to send a campaign to suppress the Wahhabi movement in the Arabian Peninsula, he summoned the Mamluk leaders to the Citadel under the pretext of consulting with them. He then locked the massive gates behind them and ordered his soldiers to open fire. It is said that some Mamluks managed to escape by scaling the Citadel walls, mounting their horses, and fleeing to Upper Egypt. Among them was Ibrahim Bey, who escaped to Sudan and returned about three years later, only to be killed in a similar manner to the Citadel Massacre.

The Date of the Massacre and the Number of Mamluks Before It

This massacre took place on March 1, 1811. The number of Mamluks at that time was estimated by Monsieur Mangin to be 2,500 fighters.

The idea for the Citadel Massacre originated with

Lazoghli Pasha, the Minister of Finance for Muhammad Ali Pasha at that time.

The precursors to the Massacre

Around 1807

Starting in 1807, Muhammad Ali Pasha resorted to trickery against their leaders. He began by winning over Shahin Bey al-Alfi, the successor of Muhammad Bey al-Alfi.

He continued to show him affection and goodwill until he lured him to Cairo. He agreed that Shahin Bey would reside in Giza and receive the revenue of the Fayoum region, thirty villages in the Bahnasa region, and ten villages in Giza. He granted him full control over all of this, including the tax collection and the tax collection, and added the entire tax collection of Beheira to Alexandria, providing him with a written deed to that effect.

Shahin Bey accepted this peace agreement

He came to Cairo to visit Muhammad Ali Pasha, who honored him and invited him to a banquet at the home of his son, Tusun. Shahin Bey then took up residence in the palace prepared for him with tribute (Shawwal 1222 AH – December 1807 CE). He abandoned the life of struggle and fighting, and some of the Mamluk princes followed his example, abandoning the war. Muhammad Ali Pasha pledged allegiance to him and, in early 1808 (Dhu al-Qi'dah 1222 AH), sent a message to his fellow Mamluks in Upper Egypt, urging them to submit and pledge their loyalty to him.

Shahin Bey's appeal had a significant effect in curbing the Mamluks' resistance

Fighting in Upper Egypt ceased, and a relative calm settled over the region. This lull was attributed to the Mamluks' weakened state and the despair that had crept into the hearts of their leaders. Ibrahim Bey the Elder, weakened by old age, was inclined towards rest and quietude after the years had diminished his vigor and strength. Similarly, Uthman Bey Hassan, the two leading Mamluks recognized as the legitimate rulers after the deaths of al-Alfi and al-Bardisi, remained steadfast in their old animosity towards Muhammad Ali Pasha and their distrust of his intentions towards the Mamluks. Shahin Bey al-Muradi (al-Bardisi's successor), however, held no influence alongside Ibrahim Bey and Uthman Bey Hassan.

Muhammad Ali Pasha understood the psychology of those two leaders and knew that past experiences had made them distrustful and distrustful of him

So, he bypassed them and focused his efforts on winning over the junior beys and scouts among their followers. He seized the opportunity presented by the relative calm that prevailed among the Mamluks and began sending messengers to them, urging them to submit to his authority by promising them stipends to support them in Cairo. Through this method, he succeeded in fracturing the Mamluk ranks and drawing some of them to the capital (Cairo).

When Shahin Bey al-Muradi, the successor of al-Bardisi, died (in May 1808)

Muhammad Ali sought to demonstrate his authority and assert his rule. He appointed Salim Bey al-Muharramji as the head of the Muradi Mamluks, succeeding Shahin Bey. Simultaneously, he bestowed upon Marzuq Bey, son of Ibrahim Bey al-Kabir, the governorship of Girga. This dual appointment presented the Mamluks with a fait accompli, simultaneously asserting his authority over them and winning over Ibrahim Bey by appointing his son as governor of Girga. The Mamluks had never before been controlled and interfered in by previous Ottoman governors to the extent that Muhammad Ali did. They had previously maintained their independence in choosing their leaders, and Upper Egypt was entirely under their control.

The Mamluk leaders convened and consulted on their stance regarding this intervention

After much discussion, they decided to accept the fait accompli. However, they failed to pay the state taxes owed by the lands under their control, whether in cash or produce. Muhammad Ali threatened to launch a campaign against them if they did not comply. Shahin Bey al-Alfi mediated between the two sides, and they agreed to pay one-third of the government's produce, amounting to 7,100,000 ardebs, in March 1809. * When they failed to do so, in September 1809, he dispatched an army to subdue them and wrest control of Upper Egypt.

The Mamluks did not consider resisting and withdrew to the mountains near Girga and Asyut

Muhammad Ali saw this as an opportune moment to assume control of Upper Egypt. In October, he marched from Cairo with an army of 6,000 men. He had barely reached Asyut when the Mamluks sought peace. Muhammad Ali stipulated that they must leave. Regarding Upper Egypt, they would reside in Cairo, provided that certain areas were granted to them for their use, and they would pay taxes and levies on those areas. These conditions demonstrate the extent of the Mamluks' weakness, as their previous conditions stipulated that they would govern Upper Egypt in exchange for paying tribute. The final conditions essentially required them to relinquish their rule and reside in Cairo under the authority of Muhammad Ali.

This agreement was concluded on the 27th of Ramadan, 1224 AH (November 1809 CE) in Asyut. The Mamluks requested a three-month grace period to settle their affairs

Muhammad Ali granted this grace period and returned to Cairo. When the three-month period expired, they requested an extension of several months, which he agreed to. Upon the expiration of the deadline, he warned them that if they did not return, he would send an army against them. They submitted and resolved to depart for the capital.

Ibrahim Bey and his companions marched to Cairo (May 1810)

When they approached Giza, they camped on the west bank of the Nile, pitching their tents within cannon range of Giza. Messengers shuttled between Ibrahim Bey and Muhammad Ali Pasha, who was residing at his palace in Shubra at the time. These meetings proved fruitless, as Ibrahim Bey had little faith in Muhammad Ali Pasha's intentions, and Muhammad Ali himself sought only to buy time to weaken and humiliate the Mamluks. Ibrahim Bey was displeased with the treatment he received; the cannons were not fired in his honor as he had expected, and Muhammad Ali Pasha ignored him in Giza. Consequently, Ibrahim Bey resolved to return to Upper Egypt, breaking the peace agreement, thus reigniting the conflict between Muhammad Ali Pasha and the Mamluks.

Ibrahim Bey managed to persuade Shahin Bey, the successor of al-Alfi, to break his agreement with Muhammad Ali and leave Cairo to join forces with his brothers

Shahin Bey complied and slipped away from Giza. He was followed in his withdrawal by the Mamluk beys and scouts who had remained in Egypt for two years, content with Muhammad Ali's rule. Unity was restored within the Mamluk ranks. Muhammad Ali was displeased by this move and raised a new army to fight his rivals.

The fighting resumed, and Muhammad Ali Pasha's army advanced into Upper Egypt, defeating the Mamluks at Bahnasa and Lahun

He seized the Fayoum region, and Ibrahim Bey, Uthman Bey Hassan, and Salim Bey, the Mamluk leaders, withdrew to Aswan, their strength and morale shattered. Shahin Bey al-Alfi returned to Muhammad Ali Pasha seeking pardon, which he granted. He allowed him to reside in Cairo and gave him a beautiful house in Azbatiya (October 1810). Perhaps Muhammad Ali intended to lure him this time to his death in the Citadel massacre, as will be explained later. Many other beys, scouts, and Mamluks also sought Muhammad Ali's protection, which he granted, allowing them to return to Cairo and reside there.

Muhammad Ali subjugated Upper Egypt to his rule, and all of Egypt, near and far, submitted to him

The Mamluks who had pledged their allegiance returned to Cairo and began to indulge in luxury and comfort. Muhammad Ali generously provided for them from the government treasury, making them prefer Cairo to a life of struggle and warfare. They devoted themselves to settling into their new lives, beautifying and furnishing their homes with luxurious gardens and furniture. Most of them began to marry and prepare for celebrations and festivities. They imagined they had found respite from the hardships of life and the horrors of battle, and that they were about to embark on a life of happiness, prosperity, and children. Little did they know what fate held in store for them: a terrible end.

Muhammad Ali Pasha was apprehensive about the Mamluks remaining in Cairo, especially after he decided to launch a campaign against the Wahhabis in the Hejaz, following orders from Istanbul

He feared that if the army left Egypt and its military strength weakened, the Mamluks would return to oppose him and seize power. He concluded that the only way to maintain his authority and sole rule was to eliminate the remaining Mamluks. Thus, the idea of ​​assassinating them in the conspiracy known as the Citadel Massacre was conceived in his mind, through a planned celebration.

The details of the Massacre

On the day of the celebration (March 1, 1811)

Muhammad Ali prepared for the event. The Mamluk leaders arrived in their finest attire, mounted on their horses. After the lavish ceremony concluded, Muhammad Ali invited them to join the army procession heading out to war.

The procession was preceded by a large contingent of horses carrying Muhammad Ali's army, led by his son, Ibrahim Bey.

Muhammad Ali then asked the Mamluks to march in the ranks of the army so they would be at the forefront of those bidding him farewell. The grounds of the citadel in 1811 were uneven and difficult to traverse. Visibility was also poor and obstructed for the Mamluk emirs, who were marching ahead of a large army. At that moment, after the army had exited the citadel gates, the gates closed, and the guards, who had been turning their heads towards the Mamluks, turned to face them. A shot rang out into the air. The Mamluks only realized what had happened now, but it was too late.

This was the signal for the beginning of a massacre that history will never forget

Bullets rained down from every direction on the Mamluks. If you ever visit the Citadel of Saladin to see its sites, buildings, and monuments, pause for a moment beneath the minaret of the Sultan Hassan Mosque and turn your gaze towards the Citadel. You will find it before you, with its formidable position, high walls, towering towers, and massive gates. The first thing that will catch your eye is the domes of the Muhammad Ali Mosque and its exquisitely crafted, slender minarets that seem to touch the clouds. If you look back at this, set it aside, for it did not fully exist in the era we are writing about. Muhammad Ali Pasha had not yet built his mosque until this year (1811). Look ahead, and you will find a massive gate carved into the mountain, surmounted by ancient towers. This gate is called Bab al-Azab (Gate of the Citadel), the western gate of the Citadel, located on the square now called Saladin Square. At that time, it was called Al-Rumaila Square. Upon entering through this gate, you would find a rough, winding path, carved into the rock, which you would ascend with great effort and toil to the Citadel's courtyard. From there, you would reach Muhammad Ali University, and then his palace. Once you recognize these locations and their image is firmly fixed in your mind, listen to what transpired there on the first of March, 1811.

When Muhammad Ali Pasha returned from Upper Egypt, he began preparing an army to send to the Hijaz to fight the Wahhabis in the Hijaz region

In response to the Ottoman government's call, he began preparing the campaign's equipment in early 1811. He entrusted its command to his son, Ahmed Tosun Pasha, and organized a grand ceremony at the Citadel, scheduled for Friday, the first of March 1811, to celebrate his son's investiture with the robes of command. He invited statesmen, dignitaries, and high-ranking military and royal officials to witness this magnificent celebration. The plan was for Tosun Pasha to be presented with the robes of command and then descend from the Citadel in his full splendor. His procession wound its way through the city's main streets to reach the campaign camp in Qubba.

Such a celebration was a grand affair, drawing large crowds

The Pasha invited all the princes, beys, Mamluk scouts, and their followers to the festivities. The Mamluks considered this invitation a sign of Muhammad Ali Pasha's favor. They all rode in their finest attire, wearing their most expensive clothes and riding their best horses, and went to the Citadel that morning before the appointed time for Tusun Pasha's procession.

Before the festivities began, the Mamluk beys entered the grand reception hall to meet Muhammad Ali Pasha. He greeted them warmly and offered them coffee

The Pasha thanked them for accepting his invitation and hinted at the honor his son would receive if they accompanied him in the procession. They thanked him in return and apologized for the absence of their brothers who were still in Upper Egypt and unable to participate in the celebration. The Pasha accepted their apologies with understanding and expressed his forgiveness and good intentions towards those who were unable to attend. He and his guests conversed briefly, and then the call to depart sounded. Drums were beaten and music played, signaling the readiness for the procession to move.

The procession moved forward, led by a vanguard of Dalat horsemen under the command of an officer named Uzun Ali, followed by the police chief, the Agha (governor of the city), and the Muhtasib (market inspector). Next came the Janissaries, followed by a contingent of Albanian soldiers

These soldiers were led by Salih Aqqush, then the Mamluks, headed by Sulayman Bey al-Bawab (the gatekeeper), and after them came the rest of the Albanian soldiers, both cavalry and infantry. Following them came the dignitaries and high-ranking officials. The vanguard of the procession passed through the gate, followed by the police chief, then the governor and his entourage, and finally the Janissaries. No sooner had they crossed the gate than it suddenly rattled and slammed shut from the outside, trapping the Mamluks and the Albanian soldiers behind them. Seeing the gate locked, and knowing the meaning of this sign, the soldiers silently and calmly turned away from the road and climbed the rocks surrounding and above it on both sides. They took up positions on the rocks, walls, and ramparts overlooking it, and no one noticed. At first, the Mamluks thought the gate was locked and continued advancing towards it. But no sooner had their first ranks reached it than they found it firmly shut in their faces. They saw the Albanians scaling the rocks overlooking them, so they halted their advance, their ranks closing in on one another. A moment later, gunshots rang out from the windows of one of the barracks. This was the harbinger of the conspiracy's execution, for no sooner had those shots echoed in the air than a hail of bullets rained down on the Mamluks, who were trapped in this deep-seated passage. The massive gate was locked against them, and the Albanian soldiers were behind them, above them, to their right, and to their left, firing their rifles at them.

The Mamluks were unable to defend themselves; they had neither the time nor the ability to move, retreat, or dismount from their horses

Because they were trapped in a confined space, and because they had come to the celebration without rifles or bullets, carrying only their swords—which were useless in that situation—the bullets rained down upon them, mowing them down like a harvest, and death came at them from every direction.

Four hundred and seventy Mamluks and their followers entered the fortress that morning

All were killed except for one man named Amin Bey. He was at the rear of the ranks, and when he saw bullets raining down on his comrades, he sought escape. He mounted his horse and rode to a vantage point overlooking the road, reaching the fortress wall. Seeing death all around him, he saw no other way out but to throw himself from the top of the wall. The danger was immense, as the wall was sixty feet above the ground, but he risked his life, preferring death to being killed. He spurred his horse, which leaped and fell. When he was close to the ground, he jumped on foot, leaving the horse to absorb the impact. The horse was instantly killed, and Amin Bey escaped death. He then ran through the desert, continuing to traverse the valleys in disguise until he reached southern Syria.

Muhammad Ali Pasha meticulously planned the conspiracy, and only four of his closest confidants were privy to its secrets

These were Hassan Pasha, commander of the Albanian soldiers; Kethuda Bey Muhammad Laz Oghli; Saleh Qush, an officer; and Ibrahim Agha, the gatekeeper. Saleh Qush, as previously mentioned, led the contingent of Albanian soldiers in the procession and was the one who ordered the gate of the prison to be closed and gave the signal for his men to kill.

Where was Muhammad Ali Pasha during the massacre?

Muhammad Ali issued an order to the district inspectors to arrest and kill any Mamluks they encountered.

While Salih Qush was preparing to carry out the plot, Muhammad Bey Ali Pasha sat in the reception hall with his three secretaries. He remained calm until the procession began to move and the dreadful moment drew near. Anxiety and turmoil gripped him, and a profound silence fell over the citadel until the first shot rang out, signaling the start of the massacre. Muhammad Ali stood, his face turning pale and yellow, torn by conflicting emotions. He listened to the sound of gunfire and the cries of terror and distress, remaining silent and speechless, until death had claimed most of the Mamluks. The sound of gunfire began to fade, signaling the end of the plot. At that moment, Monsieur Mandrichi, his Italian physician, entered and said, "The matter is settled, and today is a happy day for Your Highness." Muhammad Ali did not reply. He asked for a cup of water, which he drank in a long gulp. The Khedive Bey then went out and began to finish off the remaining Mamluks. The Mamluks were ordered to be captured, and the Albanians were instructed to arrest only those Mamluks who had survived the massacre on the designated day and send them to the Citadel. The Khedive then ordered their execution. Only those who fled the city in hiding and migrated to Upper Egypt escaped.

How many Mamluks were killed on the day of the massacre?

The number of Mamluks killed in the Citadel and throughout Cairo and the provinces during those terrible days reached approximately 1,000, including emirs, scouts, soldiers, and Mamluks.

Did any Mamluks survive the Citadel massacre?

The Mamluk class was effectively executed that day. Only a small number remained, including those who stayed with Ibrahim Bey al-Kabir and Uthman Bey Hassan, who had previously been distrustful of reconciliation with Muhammad Ali Pasha. They remained in Upper Egypt with this group of Mamluks. In addition to these, about sixty Mamluks escaped to Syria.